Archive for the ‘Berry Reference (Notes)’ Category

SPM Biology Form 4 Notes – Terminology and Concepts: Cell Structure and Cell Organisation (Part IV)

March 6, 2010

Finally, the 4th or concluding post in the series for SPM Biology Form 4 notes on Cell Structure and Cell Organisation.(Do check out the previous three post on the same topic, easiest to find by clicking on “related posts”) To close this chapter, Berry Berry Easy would like to focus on cell organisation and their differences in various organisms. Be sure to read all four posts as a whole to understand the whole picture.

SPM Form 4 – Terminology and Concepts: Cell Structure and Cell Organisation (Part IV)

Cell Organisation

Unicellular – A single cell performs all the basic life process. Example: Amoeba sp., Paramecium sp., Chlamydomonas, Bacteria and Euglena.

Multicellular – An organism consists of more than one cell. Each group of cell specialized to carry our life processes. Example: Homo sapien (human), animals and plants. It has five levels of organisation

1. Cells: basic units of structure and function.
   Example: Red blood cells and xylem vessel cells.
2. Tissues: made up of cells with similar in structure and function.
   Example: Epithelial tissues and vascular tissues.
3. Organs: made up of tissues that perform a specific function.
   Example: Heart and flower.
4. System: two of more organs that perform a specific function.
   Example: Digestive system and root system.
5. Organisms: whole living thing that carry out all the basic life processes.
   Example: Human and durian tree.

Cell Organisation (Unicellular) in Amoeba sp. (lives in freshwater ponds) and Paramecium sp. (lives in soil and moist area)

1. Cell structure

• Amoeba sp.: plasma membrane, food vacuole, contractile vacuole, pseudopodium, nucleus, ectoplasma, endoplasm.
• Paramecium sp.: food vacuole, posterior contractile vacuole, cytostome, gullet, oral groove, cilia, macronucleus, micronucleus, anterior contractile vacuole.

2. Locomotion

• Amoeba sp.: Pseudopodium (false foot) helps it to move forward slowly and it is known as amoeboid movement.
• Paramecium sp.: Hair-like cilia to beat against water. It beats its cilia backwards diagonally (swim forward) and it rotates on its axis. It beats its cilia forward (swim backwards).

3. Feeding

• Amoeba sp.: Omnivore. Eat bacteria, plant cells, algae and other microscopic organisms.

1. Entrapment – extend pseudopodium.
2. Engulfment – engulf tiny food (phagocytosis) with its pseudopodia.
3. Digestion – food enclosed in food vacuole
4. Absorption – enzyme digests the bacteria
5. Egesting – expel indigestible material.

• Paramecium sp.: Eat bacteria, organic material and other microscopic organisms.

1. Sweeping – movement of cilia. Food moves along the oral groove into the gullet and cytostome.
2. Digestion – food vacuole circulates round the cell.
3. Elimination – undigested food is eliminated at the anal pore.

4. Reproduction

• Amoeba sp.: two types of reproduction.

1. Binary Fission – nucleus divides (favourable condition) and then follows by division of cytoplasm. Two daughter cells are formed (mitotic division).
2. Spore Formation – spores form (bad condition) and germinate into new amoeba under favourable condition.

• Paramecium sp.: two types of reproduction.

1. Binary Fission – micronucleus undergoes mitosis (favourable condition). Macronucleus begins to elongation and form two. Cell content divide and two daughter cells are formed.
2. Conjugation (Sexual reproduction) – two same species parent paramecia exchange genetic material of their micronuclei. Each parent divides and forms four daughter cells.

5. Osmoregulation

• Amoeba sp.: water moves into the cell by osmosis and prevention of bursting, it has a contractile vacuole.
• Paramecium sp.: water moves into the cell by osmosis and prevention of bursting, it has two contractile vacuoles.

6. Respiration

• Amoeba sp. and Paramecium sp. (both): exchange gases throughout the whole cell membrane

7. Excretion

• Amoeba sp. and Paramecium sp. (both): waste products are ammonia and carbon dioxide by diffusion. Solid waste in paramecium is expelled through its anal pore.

Cell Organisation (Multicellular) in Human

1. Cells: Epithelial cells, muscle cells, white blood cells, red blood cells, sperm, nerve cells.
2. Tissues: Epithelial tissue, smooth muscle tissue, connective tissue, skeletal tissue, nerve tissue.
3. Organs: Stomach, heart, kidney, lung, liver.
4. Systems: Circulatory system, respiratory system, digestive system, excretory system, muscular system, lymphatic system, integumentary system, skeletal system, nervous system, endocrine system, reproductive system.
5. Organisms: Human.

Cell Organisation in Plant

1. Cells: Parenchyma cells, collenchyma cells, sclerenchyma cells, epidermal cells.
2. Tissues: Epidermal tissue, meristem tissue, vascular tissue.
3. Organs: Leaf organ, flower organ, stem organ, root organ.
4. Systems: Shoot system, root system.
5. Organisms: Plant.

So do revise on all four posts in the series if you want to understand the gist of Cell Structure and Cell Organisation. Especially useful for Form 4 students who are new to SPM Biology.

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SPM Biology Form 4 Notes – Terminology and Concepts: Cell Structure and Cell Organisation (Part III)

March 4, 2010

This is the penultimate post from Berry Berry Easy (3rd of 4) in the series of notes in Cell Structure and Cell Organisation. Before you all forget what is from the previous two posts, let us do a recap on part 2 which involvedorganelles, mitochondria for animals, chloroplast for plants and the uniqueness of cells. Do check out also the first post that contained Mitochondrion, Nucleus, Neucleolus, Neucleoplasm, Chromosomes, Ribosomes, Endoplasmic reticulum and Plasma membrane. So, do distinguish the difference between animal and plant cells.

SPM Form 4 – Terminology and Concepts: Cell Structure and Cell Organisation (Part III)

Organelles – (little organ) tiny structures inside a cell that perform specific functions for a cell. Example: mitochondria, lysosome and chloroplast.

Mitochondria

• Animal: High density at sperm cells (at middle piece to provide sufficient energy for motive power), flight muscle cells (bird / avian), liver cells, meristematic / meristemic cells (involve with cell division), kidney cells, heart muscle cells, brain cells.

Chloroplasts

• Plant: High density at palisade mesophyll (leaf: below upper epidermis). It functions to trap sunlight to synthesise sugar during photosynthesis.

The Uniqueness of The Cell

A cell is unique:

1. Specialisation
2. Division of labour
3. Coordination and integration

Example of specialisation of cells :

• Animal – smooth muscle cell, neuron (nerve cell), white blood cell, red blood cell (erythrocyte), cheek cell (lining epithelial cell), sperm, ovum cell (the biggest cell in human)
• Plant – palisade mesophyll cell, xylem, phloem, guard cell.

Do check out the final post in the series for SPM Form 4 Biology notes on Cell Structure and Cell Organisation.

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SPM Chemistry Form 4 Notes – Terminology and Concepts: Chemical Formulae and Equations (Part 2)

March 2, 2010

This is the second part of the notes on Chemical Formulae and Equations that was posted on Berry Berry Easy some few days back. The first part focused on relative atomic mass, relative formula mass, relative molecular mass and the various scales from different atom types. So here we are, moving on to some tougher concepts. Let’s us get acquaintant with Mr Avogadro and see what we can further learn on this topic.

SPM Form 4 – Terminology and Concepts: Chemical Formulae and Equations (Part 2)

Berry Berry Scientist

Italian physicist Amedeo Avogadro (Name at birth: Lorenzo Romano Amedeo Carlo Avogadro)

• Born: 9 August 1776
• Birthplace: Turin, Piedmont, Italy
• Died: 9 July 1856
• Best Known As: The guy they named Avogadro’s number after

1. Avogadro constant / Avogadro’s number is 6.02 x 10²³

2. Atomic substances

• Elements – all the particles are atoms.
• Example: zinc (Zn), sodium (Na), aluminium (Al) and all noble gases, argon (Ar), helium (He) and neon (Ne).
• RAM (Relative Atomic Mass) of  Na = 23

3. Molecular substances

• Covalent compounds – the particles are molecules.
• Example: carbon dioxide (CO₂), water (H₂O) and non-metal elements, iodine (I₂), nitrogen (N₂) and oxygen (O₂).
• RMM (Relative Molecular Mass) of I₂ = 127 + 127 = 254

4. Ionic substances

• Ionic compounds – the particles are ions.
• Example: sodium chloride (NaCl), hydrochloric acid (HCl) and potassium iodide (KI).
• RFM (Relative Formula Mass) of HCl = 1 + 35.5 = 36.5

5. Avogadro’s Law / Gas Law states that equal volumes of all gases contain the same number of molecules under the same temperature and pressure.

• Example: equal volumes of molecular hydrogen and nitrogen would contain the same number of molecules under the same temperature and pressure.

6. Volume of gas (dm³) = Number of moles of gas x Molar volume

7. Room temperature and pressure (r.t.p.) = 24 dm³ mol^-1 (25°C and 1 atm)

• Example: What is the volume of 5.0 mol helium gas at s.t.p.?
• Volume of gas = Number of moles x Molar gas volume
  = 5.0 mol x 24 dm³ mol^-1
  = 120 dm³

8. Standard temperature and pressure (s.t.p.) = 22.4 dm³ mol^-1 (0°C and 1 atm)

• Example: What is the volume of 5.0 mol helium gas at s.t.p.?
• Volume of gas = Number of moles x Molar gas volume
  = 5.0 mol x 22.4 dm³ mol^-1
  = 112 dm³

9. Mass (g) = Number of moles x Molar mass

10. Number of particles = Number of moles x Avogadro constant

11. Volume (dm³) = Number of moles x Molar volume

Be sure to copy down all these formulae a few times on paper so that you will have a better chance recalling it in the future. Copying them onto a card to bring around will be very helpful.

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SPM Chemistry Form 4 Notes – Terminology and Concepts: Chemical Formulae and Equations (Part 1)

February 25, 2010

After few weeks of learning chemistry, there are still some students who wrote in to Berry Berry Easy to express their problems in mastering chemical formulae and chemical equations. Some ask if they could just forget about it and catch up later. The answer is NO. Among basic skills which students must master to understand chemistry, none is more important than mastering chemical formulae and chemical equations. Most newcomers to the subject of chemistry are scared off by the rather complex chemical formulae and equations, although they become easier when you understand the underlying concept behind them.

Chemical formulae are simply there to describe chemical reactions as denoted by the chemical equations. Confusing? Nay, it should be. Some memorising and practise will go a long way in understanding this topic.

If you think this is hard, try understanding the difficulty of chemistry students before Mr Berzelius devised the current chemical formulae writing system. So give it a try before saying that this is hard. For those who do not find this difficult, congratulation. But do work hard in learning how to express information in a chemical formula properly. So Berry Berry Teacher would like to share with all some notes as shown below.

SPM Form 4 – Terminology and Concepts: Chemical Formulae and Equations – Part 1

1. Relative atomic mass, Ar is the atomic mass of an atom when compared to a standard atom

2. Standard atom:

Hydrogen scale: hydrogen is the lightest atom of all and the mass of one hydrogen atom was assigned 1 unit.

Weakness of Hydrogen scale:

• not too many elements can react readily with hydrogen,
• the reactive masses of some elements were not accurate,
• hydrogen exists as a gas at room temperature and
• has a number of isotopes with different masses.

Helium scale: the second lightest atom of all and the mass of one helium atom was assigned 1 unit.

Weakness of Helium scale:

• Mass of 1 helium atom = 4 times the mass of a hydrogen atom
• So, mass of 1 helium atom = 4 times 1/12 mass of a carbon atom
• helium exists as a gas at room temperature and
• helium is an inert gas.

Oxygen scale: chose as the standard atom to compare the masses of atoms

Weakness of Oxygen scale:

• the existence of three isotopes of oxygen were discovered,
• natural oxygen (containing all the three isotopes) as the standard (Chemist) and
• used the isotopes oxygen-16 as the standard (Physicists).

Carbon scale: standard atom of comparison internationally.

• a carbon-12 atom is 12 times heavier than an atom of hydrogen,
• used as the reference standard in mass spectrometers,
• exists as a solid at room temperature,
• most abundant carbon isotope, happening about 98.89% and
• carbon-12 is close to the agreement based on oxygen.

3. Relative molecular mass, Mr of a substances is the average mass of a molecule (two or more atoms) of the substances when compared 1/12 with of the mass of a carbon-12 atom.

4. Relative formula mass, Fr is for ionic compound which is calculated by adding up the relative atomic masses of all the atoms.

5. Example:

• Relative atomic mass, Ar of helium = 4
• Relative molecular mass, Mr of CO₂ = 12 + 2(16) = 44
• Relative formula mass, Fr of NaCl = 23 + 35.5 = 58.5
• Relative formula mass, Na₂CO_3·10H₂O = 2(23) + 12 + 3(16) + 10 [2(1) + 16] = 286

Try to solve some of the examples without looking at the answers. If you can understand this, then stay tune and log in again for Part 2 of this topic’s notes. If you cannot understand the examples, try and try and try and try and try again until you are good with it. Till then.

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SPM Biology Form 4 Notes – Terminology and Concepts: Cell Structure and Cell Organisation (Part II)

February 12, 2010

Continuing from Part 1 of Cell Structure and Organisation, Berry Berry Easy will like to present you with part 2 of the same topic. The previous part involved Mitochondrion, Nucleus, Neucleolus, Neucleoplasm, Chromosomes, Ribosomes, Endoplasmic reticulum and Plasma membrane. So be sure to check out the previous post.

SPM Form 4 – Terminology and Concepts: Cell Structure and Cell Organisation

Cell Structure and Function

Comparison between Animal Cell (AC) and Plant Cell (PC)

9. Golgi apparatus / Golgi body: AC and PC

• bound sacs
• processes, packages and transport molecules synthesised in the cell
• forms lysosomes
• transports and stores lipids
• synthesis of carbohydrate from hormone
• changes protein into glycoprotein
• excretes waste products out of the cell

10. Cytoplasm: AC and PC

• aqueous solution (except nucleus)
• stores water, enzymes, nutrient, salts and dissolved gases
• provided support, shape and protects the cell organelles
• medium for metabolic reactions
• provides substances

11. Lysosome: AC

• sac-like organelle with one membrane
• digest proteins, lipids and carbohydrates
• removes undigested materials
• releases enzymes to digest external materials

12.  Centriole: AC

• are paired cylindrical organelles
• nine tubes with three tubules each
• produces spindle during cell division (mitosis and meiosis)
• migrate to the opposite poles of the cell (during cell division – will be discussed in Chapter 5 Cell Division)

13. Vacuole: AC (temporary / lower class species) and PC

• small cavity in the cytoplasm
• bound by a single membrane
• filled with cell sap
• storage of food (protein, oil and water)
• some vacuoles remove metabolic waste
• functions as cell expansion
• Amoeba: food vacuoles (phagocytosis)
• Paramecium: contractile vacuoles (expel water)

14. Cell Wall: PC

• rigid and tough cellulose layer surrounding the plasma membrane (cell membrane)
• protects and supports the cell
• maintains the shape
• prevents the cell from busting (excessive intake of water)
• allows substances to move freely through the cell wall

15. Chloroplast: PC

• disc / lens-shaped organelle
• have two membranes: inner and outer membrane
• contains chlorophyll in the grana to trap sunlight energy
• carry out photosynthesis in the chlorophyll
• storage of food and pigments

Keys:

• AC and PC = similarities
• AC or PC = differences (Carbohydrates storage: AC = Glycogen / PC = Starch)

The notes for this topic is not yet complete, so check out for Part III. Log on frequently to Berry Berry Easy for more notes.

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SPM Biology Form 4 Notes – Terminology and Concepts: Cell Structure and Cell Organisation (Part I)

February 9, 2010

Still not put off by the introduction to biology? Well, then continue on to appreciate the beauty of life starting with the basic structural and functional unit of all living organism, cells. This post by the Berry Berry Teacher will be very useful for the understanding of cells, inclusive of structure and organisation. This is also part 1 of the series involving cells. Be sure to compare and contrast the animal and plant cells if you want to understand cells.

SPM Form 4 – Terminology and Concepts: Cell Structure and Cell Organisation

Cell Structure and Function

Comparison between Animal Cell (AC) and Plant Cell (PC)

1. Mitochondrion (pl: Mitochondria): AC and PC

• spherical / rod-shaped organelles
• two membranes: Inner membrane – form cristae & Outer membrane – regular and smooth
• an energy source
• site of cellular aerobic respiration
• produces ATP (adenosine triphosphate)

2. Nucleus (pl: Nuclei): AC and PC

• contains the genetic material
• regulates and controls the activities of the cell
• an organelle bounded by double (2) layers of nuclear membrane with pores and selectively permeable
• responsible for all cellular structure, chemical functions, growth and reproduction
• separates the genetic materials (chromatin) from cytoplasm

3. Nucleolus: AC and PC

• spherical structure within the nucleus
• consists of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid) and proteins
• visible when the cell is not dividing
• synthesis RNA which is needed to make ribosomes

4. Nucleoplasm: AC and PC

• fluid contained within the nucleus
• highly viscous solid
• made up of the chromatin and the nucleolus

5. Chromosomes

• thread-like structures (consists of genetic material)
• appears as chromatin spread throughout the nucleus in the form of tiny granules
• chromatin condenses into chromosomes (during cell division)
• carry genetic information in its DNA

6. Ribosomes: Ac and PC

• small dot-like organelles
• protein synthesis
• consist of RNA (ribonucleic acids)
• smallest cellular organelles
• attached on the surface of ER and occur freely in cytoplasm

7. Endoplasmic reticulum (ER): AC and PC

• connected to the nuclear membrane
• synthesises proteins, steroids and lipids
• collects, stores and distributes protein, steroids and lipids
• exists as rough ER and smooth ER
• Rough ER: covered with ribosomes, flat sealed sac which continued from the nuclear membrane, transports protein, and have a large surface area for chemical reactions.
• Smooth ER: does not have ribosomes, transports lipids and presents in large amounts of cells.

8. Plasma membrane: AC and PC

• cell membrane
• thin membrane surround the cytoplasm of a cell
• selectively permeable / semi permeable
• a protective and selective outer barrier
• consists of phospholipids and protein molecules

To be continued.. Upcoming post involves – Golgi apparatus/body, Cytoplasm, Lysosome, Centriole, Vacuole, Cell wall, Chloroplast.

Keys:

• AC and PC = similarities
• AC or PC = differences (Carbohydrates storage: AC = Glycogen / PC = Starch)

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SPM Biology Form 4 Notes – Terminology and Concepts: Introduction to Biology

February 6, 2010

Is your impression of biology limited to the dissection of frogs? It seemed like every Hollywood movie depicts biology lessons as one which involves dissection of frogs and mice. Well, it is not entirely wrong, but it does not show the whole picture. Biology encompasses more than that and it focuses on the natural science with regards to the study of life and living organism. So, for new SPM biology students in Form 4, Berry Berry Easy would like to share with you some teasers on the subject of biology.

SPM Biology Form 4 Notes – Terminology and Concepts: Introduction to Biology

Biology and Its Importance

Biology - earlier study as Botany (study of plant) and Zoology (study of animals) but now Modern Biology has many fields such as Genetic Engineering, Biotechnology and Bacteriology.

Biology - the scientific study of life.

It’s Importance:

1. Education.
2. Knowledge
3. Control
4. Research
5. Economy
6. Quality of life
7. Diseases
8. Problem solving
9. Careers

Scientific Investigation

The following are steps involved in a scientific investigation:

1. Define the problem
2. Form a hypothesis
3. Plan the investigation
4. Control the variables
5. Collect the data
6. Analyse the data
7. Interpret the data
8. Make a conclusion
9. Write a report

Berry Berry Teacher would like to recommend young berries to follow these rules in writing their report:

1. Aim / Objective
2. Statement of problem (must be in the form of question)
3. Hypothesis
4. Variables (Manipulated, Responding and Fixed)
5. Materials
6. Apparatus
7. Technique
8. Procedure / Method of the experiment
9. Results / Record of data
10. Discussion / Presentation of data
11. Conclusion (accept of not accept the hypothesis)

So there you go, a teaser on biology. Now, does that make you wanting for more? Biology is really a genuinely fun and interesting subject, once you appreciate the beauty of life. Check back for more notes on the subsequent topics of SPM biology.

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SPM Chemistry Form 4 Notes – Terminology and Concepts: The Structure of the Atom

January 30, 2010

Among the most basic knowledge in chemistry would be understanding the structure of atom. The understanding of terms and concepts of all the important keywords and key phrases would be crucial in gaining further knowledge in chemistry. Fortunately, the structure of atoms has been simplified for SPM Form 4 students to make it less abstract and more intuitive for students to understand them. It will also be helpful to start to memorise the periodic table for now. (If there as anything that you should memorise, it should be the periodic table. As it could save you more time in the long run) Nonetheless, Berry Berry Teacher hopes that everybody try to understand at minimum the following concepts as terminology before moving on to other topics.

SPM Form 4 – Terminology and Concepts: The Structure of the Atom

Important Terms

Matter – anything that occupies space and has mass.

Compound – a substance consists two or more elements that are chemically bonded (molecule or ions).

Element – a substance that cannot be made into anything simpler by chemical reaction.

Atom – smallest particle of an element.

Molecule – a group of two or more atoms.

Ion – a positively charged / negatively charged particle.

Cations – positively-charge ions. Example: H⁺, K⁺, NH₄⁺ and Mg²⁺

Anions – negatively-charge ions. Example: Br^-, OH^-, O^2- and S₂O₃^2-

Velocity of the particle ­ increases when

• Temperature ­increases
• Kinetic energy ­increases

Diffusion – movement of particles from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration.

Changes in the States of Matter

1. Freezing / Solidification – liquid -> solid
2. Melting – solid -> liquid
3. Evaporation – liquid -> gas / vapour
4. Condensation – gas / vapour -> liquid
5. Sublimation – gas / vapour -> solid
6. Sublimation – solid -> gas / vapour

(Sublimation – iodine, ammonium chloride and solid carbon dioxide)

Important Scientist and Their Contributions

Berry Berry Teacher thinks that it will be good if students can link the contribution of each great scientists to their findings. This will allow a chronological understanding of the discoveries (for easier understanding) and to appreciate the work of these fine scientist.

John Dalton (1808) – atomic theory

1. Atoms – small indivisible particles.
2. Atoms – neither created nor destroyed.
3. Atoms – an element are alike.
4. Atoms – it combine in simple ratio.
5. Atoms – chemical reactions result from combination / separation of atoms.

J. J. Thomson (1897)

1. Electrons – negatively-charged particles.
2. Atoms – positively-charged sphere.

Ernest Rutherford (1911)

1. Atoms – consists of a positively-charged nucleus with a cloud of electrons surrounding nucleus.
2. Protons – positively-charged particles.

Niels Bohr (1913)

1. Electrons – surrounding the nucleus (orbit).

James Cadwick (1932)

1. Neutrons – electrically neutral subatomic particles.
2. Neutrons – mass almost the same with a proton.
3. Nucleus of an atom – consists of protons and neutrons.

Concepts of the Atomic Model

Modern Atomic Model

1. Nucleus of an atom – consists of protons and neutrons.
2. Electrons – moving around the nucleus (orbits / electron shells/ quantum shells)

Proton number / Atomic number / Number of protons

1. Number of protons in its atom.
2. Number of electrons (neutral atom).

Nucleon number / Mass number / Number of nucleon

1. Sum of the number protons and neutrons.

Isotopes – atoms of the same element with same proton number but different nucleon numbers.

(Further clarification on isotopes as there are still students who are confused with this concept – Isotopes for any elements simply means that it is another element with the same number of proton and electron but different number of neutrons. It is important to note that the atomic number of isotopes are the same, although the mass number is different. If you can understand this concept, you should be okay)

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SPM Chemistry Form 4 Notes – Terminology and Concepts: Introduction to Chemistry

January 21, 2010

For those taking science stream in Form 4, Chemsitry will be a new subject that are most likely within your subject combination choices. It might seemed difficult in the beginning. You might even hear stories from seniors about how chemistry gives you sleepless nights. Or stories of exploding chemicals. Don’t fret, chemistry is not all too bad if everybody is attentive to their teachers and observe lab safety regulations. Berry Berry Easy would like to share with all Berry Readers the introduction to chemistry. Berry Berry Teacher has decided to make it very short so that students do not feel overwhelmed by new things. If you can fully understand what is written below, then you are cut out to do chemistry.

SPM Form 4 Notes – Terminology and Concepts: Introduction to Chemistry

Chemistry and Its Importance

Chemistry – earlier study of alchemy (an art of transforming common metals to precious metals, usually lead to gold but to no success) (alchemy has since been proven to be a wrong and currently dead branch of science)

Chemistry – is the study of the composition, structure, properties and interactions of matter.

Founder of Modern Chemistry (try and read up on the history of these two great men)

1. Robert Boyle (1627-1691) – performed controlled experiments and published his work with elaborate details such as procedure, apparatus and observations.
2. Antoine Lavoisier (1743-1794) – developed the Law of Conservation of Mass and the theory of combustion.

Scientific Method

1. Making Observation
2. Making Inference (smart guess)
3. Identifying the Problem
4. Making a Hypothesis
5. Identifying the Variables
6. Controlling the Variables
7. Planning an Experiment
8. Collecting Data
9. Interpreting Data
10. Making a Conclusion
11. Writing a Report

If you observe all 11 steps, you will be a young scientist in the making. Try to enjoy the process of learning chemistry. Berry Berry Important subject if you intend to further your career in the field of engineering.

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STPM Chemistry Form 6 Notes- Terminology and Concepts: Reaction Kinetics

January 21, 2010

The following terminologies and concepts are pertinent in the understanding of the topic “Reaction Kinetics” in STPM Form 6. The concepts are rather straight-forward. Berry Berry Teacher believes that students should have minimal problems with mastering the basics of the topic if they can understand the following terminologies and concepts below.  Try to understand this first, before moving on to the harder aspect of the topic, namely the “graphs”. More will be posted on interpreting and understanding graphs related to this topic. So for now, try to understand this.

STPM Form 6 – Terminology and Concepts: Reaction Kinetics

Rate of reaction is the change of concentration of a reactant or a product per unit time (seconds / minutes).

Rate of reaction = rate of increase of the concentration or amount of the product / Rate of reaction = rate of decrease of the concentration or amount of the reactant.

Average rate is the change in concentration of a substance (reactant or product) over a fixed time interval.

Instantaneous rate is the rate of the reaction at a specific time (the steeper the slope, the higher the instantaneous rate).

Tangent is zero, the rate is zero / reaction has stopped.

Rate Equation or Rate Law is the rate of a reaction which is affected by the reactants concentration.

Rate = k [reactant]ⁿ ,           k is rate constant

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